To understand the eschatological passages (alleged and actual) of Zechariah, it is necessary to examine the whole book. However, it is not the intent of this essay to produce a complete verse-by-verse commentary. The approach of this study will be to examine the higher level structures of Zechariah, then delve down to the details of individual verses selectively. In addition to studying the eschatology of Zechariah, some select hermeneutic principles will also be illustrated.
The greater context is always important in understanding an individual verse. One should not only examine the paragraph or pericope of a verse, but the book as a whole and its position in history, canon, and literature. It is important to read a book as a whole and also to study other parts of scripture and even secular history that illustrate its historical context. Identify pericopes in the book and relate them in an outline structure. Meditate on the form of the literature and how the author's intent shapes it.
The very first verse identifies the point in history the prophecy was given and the prophet. In the Bible, God is a god who acts within actual history, and not some mythically distant past. The importance of this is borne out by the frequent chronological notes in scripture. History is even the theme of this introductory oracle. God had spoke to the former prophets and their words had come to pass. The ethical teachings of these former prophets is a theme Zechariah returns to multiple times.
A brief timeline of events of this period will be instructive here:
520 BC, August 29 - Haggai's first message (Haggai 1:1)
520 BC, September 21 - Building of temple resumed (Haggai 1:12f, Ezra 5:2)
520 BC, October 17 - Haggai's second message (Haggai 2:1)
520 BC, October/November - Zechariah's first message (Zechariah 1:1)
520 BC, December 18 - Haggai's third and fourth messages (Haggai 2:10, 20)
ca. 519-518 - Tattenai's letter to Darius, etc. (Ezra 5:3f)
519 BC, February 19 - Zechariah's night vision(s) (Zechariah 1:7)
518 BC, December 7 - Question about fasting (Zechariah 7:1)
516 BC, March 12 - Dedication of the temple (Ezra 6:15f)
after 516 BC(?) - Zechariah's final prophecies (Zechariah 9-14) [1]
The next block of pericopes is a series of visions. Each is structurally introduced by some indication that Zechariah "saw". In form, these visions are apocalyptic. That is not to say that they are necessarily eschatological or judgmental in content. Rather, it indicates that what is seen in the vision is a set of visual symbols and that there is an angel present to provide some degree of explanation or narration. [12]
The first verse, Zechariah 1:7, sets the historical context as about three months later than the very first oracle. Commenters generally assume the eight visions happened in one night. This is not explicitly stated, but neither are there any chronological markers indicating multiple nights. This point does not effect interpretation of the apocalyptic visions, so there is no point in being dogmatic about it.
The first vision is of a horseman and some horses. The exact count is not specified, though they are of three colors. As is typical in the apocalyptic genre, there is an angel nearby for Zechariah to talk to and get some explanation. The horses and horseman (only one red horse is mentioned as having a rider, although most commenters think it likely they all did[2]) are agents of the LORD who go about the earth and report back to Him what they observe. They are a symbolic representation. Angels don't go around riding on literal horses, but such would be a culturally relevant symbol as that would be the method kings of the time would monitor and control their empires. A modern equivalent might be a pilot in a U2 spy plane.
The report that the nations are "at rest and quiet", a Pax Persia if you will, is one we will see a few more times. Zechariah further learns from the angels that God is going to have compassion on Jerusalem and will rebuild the temple (note that the subject of that verb is "I", that is, God), work on which had been temporarily halted until shortly before this vision. God is also displeased with the Gentile nations, which are at rest and quiet and have taken His grace for granted.
The rebuilding of the temple is something that happened in Zechariah's time. We are not looking to an eschatological temple in this passage.
The symbols seen in this vision are four horns and four blacksmiths. The four horns (usually a symbol of strength or power[15]) are the enemies "that have scattered Judah, Israel, and Jerusalem". It is too much to equate the four horns with the four empires of Daniel[3]: the horns are spoken of in the past tense, but two of Daniel's empires are still yet to come. More likely, the number four represents the four cardinal directions: the enemies were all around Israel. We see the four winds, and four colors of horses going off in different directions later on as well. The blacksmiths are not identified beyond that they "cut off the horns of the nations that... scatter [Judah's] people". It is probably best to just see them as representing God's supernatural help through whatever agents it was accomplished without getting more specific. Babylon has been banished and the surrounding peoples are not going to be successful in preventing the temple and Jerusalem from being rebuilt, although they will try.
Verse 11 looks forward to the day many nations "join themselves to the LORD", an event quintessentially realized in the church. To the Christian, the promise "I will settle in the midst of you all" goes beyond the Shekinah glory dwelling in the temple. It is realized in Jesus' incarnation, and further in the Holy Spirit being given to the church. Adam Clarke on 2:10 writes "This must chiefly refer to the Christian church, in which God ever dwells by the power of his Spirit, as he had done by the symbol of his presence in the first Jewish temple. "
The NET note is wrong in verse 6[16] to suggest that the scattered Jews are those of eschatological times because the Jews of the Babylonian Diaspora had already returned. Ezra brought back many more (Ezra 8:1-14), and there were still many still left behind, such as Nehemiah who came later (and then returned to Susa).
Satan's role here is a reprise of his role in Job. But the filthy clothes, symbolizing Joshua's iniquity are replaced. God forgives him. Verse 8 is especially important. Joshua and his colleagues are a symbol of the Branch, that is, for the Messiah. Interestingly, the Branch is also called a servant, combining the two Messianic symbols for the first time.[4]
The stone is another Messianic symbol (1 Peter 2:7, Isa 8:14, 28:16)[23], and the seven eyes may represent the Holy Spirit (Rev 5:6, Zech 4:10). Also compare with 2 Chronicles 16:9, "the eyes of the LORD move quickly through all the earth" (NET note). It is tempting, with some commenters, to see the inscription on the stone as representing the wounds of the passion of Jesus.[5]
It is not clear how the menorah signifies "Not by strength and not by power, but by my Spirit". But, the phrase itself seems to signify that God's redemption of Israel will not be by military conquest. That is an aspect of the Messiah that many Jews had difficulty grasping[6]. Compare this with Jesus' concept of the Kingdom of God as a non-political, but very real and present, entity that he was inaugurating.
The use of symbolism continues. Zerubbabel did not literally turn a mountain into a level plain, but he did overcome all the obstacles to building the temple. The image of seven eyes (of the LORD) also appears here, perhaps referring to the seven lamps[13].
The difficulty in understanding how the menorah represents its interpretation should serve as a caution when we attempt to interpret other symbols. The symbolism probably made sense within the cultural context of the 6th century BC, but we are not in full possession of that context.
The scroll is a symbol of the same message to turn from wickedness as encountered in Zechariah 1:4 and other passages in the book.
This vision symbolically represents evil being removed from the land and banished to "Babylon" as a reversal the late exile of Israel.
The symbolism here is enigmatic; some text critical questions beyond the scope of this essay don't make things any clearer. The idea seems to be that the Persians' conquest of Babylonia has brought peace to the nations. (Although Babylon is somewhat east of the land of Israel, the roads from there come into Israel from the north, hence the reference to the northland here). Compare the reference to peace in verse 8 with "rest and quiet" in Zechariah 1:11 and "Be silent ... all people everywhere" in Zechariah 2:12. It probably served to encourage the Jews that there would not be further interference in construction of the temple. Contrary to the note in the NET on verse 8, there is nothing to suggest that this peace has an eschatological dimension.
The next five pericopes are each characterized by the phrase "the word of the LORD" in contrast the the previous eight, characterized by phrases such as "I looked" or "I saw". Only one is dated. Because of the obvious grouping by form, one should be cautious about assuming chronological ordering.
Understand verse 12 in light of the fourth vision. Neither Joshua nor Zerubbabel are the Branch; they are symbolic of the Branch. Note that Joshua is the Hebrew form of the Greek name Jesus! But Jesus built a very different temple: the body of believers known as the church, an action symbolized by Joshua and Zerubbabel constructing the literal temple. In the immediate context, "those who are far away" refers to Jews in exile, but this symbolizes the Gentiles entering the church in the Messianic age.
Only some prophecies are dated. Zechariah's anthologist probably only records the dates when he knows them. Zechariah uses opportunity of the question about fasting to commemorate the destruction of the temple 70 years earlier (a round number... it was closer to 68 years earlier), to rail against hypocrisy, and to once again cite the former prophets.
Zechariah again repeats the message of the former prophets.
Note that in verse 2, God's return to Zion as a completed act. This isn't the eschatological Parousia. This pericope is only talking about return from exile and the establishment of a bustling Jewish community in the holy land again.
Contrary to the NET note on verse 5 and various commenters, verses 4-5 are not about eschatological idealism in a millennial kingdom[7]. They are simply about a return to normal life in Jerusalem where people are born and live there all their lives.
The ethical preaching of the former prophets is again repeated (verses 16-17).
As a sequel to 7:1-7, Zechariah now says that the four fasts kept in honor of various phases of the destruction of Jerusalem -
tenth month = siege of Jerusalem, Jan. 15, 588 BC (2 Kings 25:1)
fourth month = breach of the city walls, ca. July 18, 586 BC (Jer 39:2-5)
fifth month = destruction of the temple, Aug. 14, 586 BC (2 Kings 25:8)
seventh month = assassination of Gedaliah, governor of Judah, ca. 581 BC (Jer 40:13-14; 41:1) [14]
- will turn into feasts. He further says that many peoples and nations will seek the LORD, a reality that finds its fulfillment in Christianity. People tend to forget that the apostles were Jews. We should see the fulfillment of verse 23 in passages such as Acts 2:37-41; 8:12, 38; 10:44-48 (especially); etc.
Each oracle is actually a collection of prophecies. The two collections share a similar structure.
Josephus tells a story about Alexander the Great[8]. When he was in Macedonia, he had a vision of a man telling him that he would conquer Persia. Alexander defeated Darius' army and took Syria, Damascus, and Sidon, and had besieged Tyre. He sent a message to Jerusalem and the High Priest Jaddua demanding provisions. Jaddua refused, saying he had sworn an oath to Darius, and could not break it as long as Darius was alive.
This infuriated Alexander, and when Tyre had fell, he marched on Jerusalem. Jaddua was told in a vision to simply go out with the priests, all dressed in their priestly attire, and meet with Alexander. To everyone's amazement, Alexander approached the High Priest and saluted him. It had been the image of Jaddua who had appeared to him in his vision in Macedonia. So Jerusalem was not only spared Alexander's wrath, but was allowed to not pay tribute every seven years (when the land wasn't sown on the Sabbath year), and all the Jews in his domain were allowed to live by their own laws.
How ever much of this story might be embellished legend, the fact remains that Alexander bypassed sacking Jerusalem on his march to conquer the world. Most commenters see this as the fulfillment of the subject passage.
Zechariah 9:9 is quoted in Matthew 21:5 and John 12:15 in reference to Jesus' entry into Jerusalem. Jesus, as the messiah, not only acted this passage out literally, but also fulfilled the symbolic meaning of the passage: that of his humility in coming as the suffering servant instead of a bold conquering warlord. His message of peace was universal (verse 10). More on this will be discussed in the next chapter. The image of the king on a donkey calls to mind David's fleeing on a donkey from the rebellion of Absalom (who in contrast rode in a chariot behind horses).[10]
Verses 11-17 are full of symbolic language: the waterless pit, prisoners, Judah a bow, Ephraim an arrow, Zion a sword, etc. The mention of Greece here should not be too surprising. We are not far removed from the wars between Persia and Greece of the second half of the 5th century BC.[9] After the coming of Alexander the Great, seen in the beginning of this chapter, the whole of the eastern Mediterranean was Hellenized. The conflict predicted here is not literal warfare -- we're talking rather about the spread of the Gospel and the Holy Spirit.
The reference to overcoming with sling stones in verse 15 is another Davidic reference[11]. The meaning is not the literally throwing of stones, but that they would overcome, "not by strength and not by power, but by my Spirit" (Zechariah 4:6). The references to blood and grain find meaning in Jesus' sacrifice and in communion done in remembrance of it.
There is nothing strictly eschatological about this. It finds its realization in the Kingdom of God that Jesus preached, although it does perhaps suggest an eventual victory of the Gospel (post-millennialism).
The pagan religion of the Canaanites regarded Baal as a storm god. After deprecating the leaders who lead Judah astray (verse 3), we have another messianic prediction. Verse 4 uses several images that are used symbolically throughout scripture. The cornerstone especially a messianic symbol (Isaiah 28:16; Psalm 118:22; and NT quotations of these). What NET translates as wall peg here may also be translated tent peg. In Ezra's prayer it is used as a metaphor for security. Isaiah uses it similarly in a metaphor where Jerusalem is a tent (Isaiah 33:20). Etc. Given that we are stacking symbol upon symbol here, the fight being referenced is most likely a symbolic fight as well.
The northern kingdom of Israel (AKA Ephraim AKA Joseph) was carried away into captivity by Assyria long before Judah's captivity, and other peoples were settled into the land. Those who remained intermingled with the other peoples and became the Samaritans. They are all that is left of Ephraim. What Zechariah suggests here, the reunification of Ephraim and Judah, was simply unthinkable. We read in Ezra that the Samaritans offered to help build the temple, but were rebuffed by Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Ezra 4:1-5): "You have no right to help us build the temple of our God." This set in motion a pattern of conflict between them. The Samaritans frustrated the efforts to build the temple, which is what occasioned Haggai and Zechariah to begin prophesying in the first place. After the temple was built, they frustrated the construction of the city walls (Ezra 4:6-23). Later, when Ezra came to Jerusalem and learned some of the Jews had taken Samaritan wives, he made them divorce them and send them and their children away! (Ezra 9-10).
Zechariah's solution to the problem is the annulment of the old covenant. He enacts his message by being a shepherd to an afflicted flock destined for slaughter (verse 7). He is detested (verse 8), and breaks a staff to symbolize the annulment of the covenant (verses 10-11). He is paid off for with the price a slave for his effort (verse 12-13). He then breaks another staff symbolizing the brotherhood between Judah (the Jews) and Israel (the Samaritans). He then acts out the part of a foolish shepherd (verses 15-17).
This whole passage is a symbolic telling of first century AD history of the Suffering Servant, the Messiah. The application of verses 11-13 to Judas' betrayal and the rejection of Jesus by the Jewish leadership is well known. The covenant between God and the Jews was ended. The devastation spoken of here (including literal cannibalism! cf. verse 9) happened in AD 70.
This is not anti-Semitism however. It is not that the Jews are irrevocably rejected. Otherwise, the prophecies of chapter 10 could not be fulfilled. It only means that the Jews, and Samaritans, stand before God now as no different (neither better, nor worse) than the Gentiles. Paul expressed it as the Jews had been cut off from the vines, and Gentiles grafted in, and that the Jews may be grafted in in the same way (Romans 11:13-24). Everyone, Jews, Samaritans, and Gentiles alike may now be united to God through the blood sacrifice of Jesus Christ -- see the communion imagery in Zechariah 9:15-17.
Note that there is a structure in common with the second oracle. A pre-Messianic prophecy (9:1-8 || 12:1-9) followed by a positive Messianic prophecy (9:9-10:12 || 12:10-13:6) followed by a negative judgment prophecy (11:1-17 || 13:7-14:21).
This passage prophecies the Maccabees defeating the Seleucids. This is not the millennial age[17]. Phrases like "all the peoples of the earth will be assembled against it [Jerusalem]" in verse 3 are hyperbolic. Compare with 1 Maccabees 3:7, "He [Judas Maccabeus] embittered many kings, but he made Jacob glad by his deeds"; 1 Maccabees 12:13, "But as for ourselves, many trials and many wars have encircled us; the kings around us have waged war against us"; 1 Maccabees 14:13, "No one was left in the land to fight them, and the kings were crushed in those days".[18]
John cites 12:10 as receiving fulfillment at the crucifixion:
Jn 19:33But when they came to Jesus and saw that he was already dead, they did not break his legs. 19:34But one of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear, and blood and water flowed out immediately. 19:35And the person who saw it has testified (and his testimony is true, and he knows that he is telling the truth), so that you also may believe. 19:36For these things happened so that the scripture would be fulfilled, “Not a bone of his will be broken.” 19:37And again another scripture says, “They will look on the one whom they have pierced.”
The mourning (12:10-14) has two dimensions. First, those who followed or at least admired Jesus (and they were no small number, else the leadership would not have felt threatened) were certainly mournful of his death. Second, the rejection of Jesus resulted in judgment on the nation and the revocation of the covenant (Zechariah 11), culminating in the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD.
The fountain in 13:1 is not a literal fountain. It is a symbol for cleansing from "sin and impurity". Isaiah uses a similar metaphor in Isaiah 12:3, "Joyfully you will draw water from the springs of deliverance". Ezekiel 47:1-12 also sees in his vision a symbolic river welling up under the threshold of the temple.[19] The image here is Messianic, looking forward to the Son of David. See Jesus' use of the image in the story of the Samaritan woman, esp. John 4:13-14:
Jn 4:13Jesus replied, “Everyone who drinks some of this water will be thirsty again. 4:14But whoever drinks some of the water that I will give him will never be thirsty again, but the water that I will give him will become in him a fountain of water springing up to eternal life.”
The remainder of this passage, verses 13:2-6, deals with the removal of idolatry and prophecy. After the Apostolic age, prophecy ceased and the canon of scripture was closed. However the focus is not on true prophecy, but on false prophecy. The wounds in verse 6 probably refer to self-inflicted wounds that were the custom of prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18:28, see also Lev 19:28, Dt 14:1). The timing of the fulfillment of this is difficult, as it doesn't follow on immediately to the 1st century fulfillment of the preceding verses. Millennial eschatologies (pre- and post-) would see it ultimately being fulfilled in the future millenium. I'm not clear what an amillennialist could do with this passage. A post-resurrection/judgment time frame is ruled out by verse 3. That is, a fulfillment within ordinary human history before the "last day" seems to be required by the idea of there still being an occasional false prophet.
Jesus cited this passage just before going to Gethsemane:
Mk 14:27Then Jesus said to them, “You will all fall away, for it is written,
‘I will strike the shepherd,
and the sheep will be scattered.’
The shepherd is the Messiah. Compare the remainder of the passage to Ezekiel 5:1-4:
Eze 5:1“As for you, son of man, take a sharp sword and use it as a barber’s razor. Shave off some of the hair from your head and your beard. Then take scales and divide up the hair you cut off. 5:2Burn a third of it in the fire inside the city when the days of your siege are completed. Take a third and slash it with a sword all around the city, and scatter a third to the wind. I will use a sword against them. 5:3But take a few strands of hair and tie them in the ends of your garment. 5:4Again, take more of them and throw them into the middle of the fire, and burn them up. From there a fire will spread to all the house of Israel.
Ezekiel is one of the "former prophets" that Zechariah refers to several times (Zechariah 1:4, et al). The Jews went through a great catastrophe after the crucifixion in the Jewish war of 66-73 AD. But one should never forget there were thousands who joined the church (Acts 2:41, 4:41, 21:20).
Interpretations of this chapter vary greatly. It is probably too much to reach definitive conclusions in this brief study. Rather, we can probably only summarize some interpretive alternatives and set some limits and principles for how the chapter might be approached.
Dispensational interpretation generally takes the imagines contained very literally. However, the use of symbols in the rest of the book should caution us in this regard. The geographic upheavals described lack plausibility of literal fulfillment. This is not because God couldn't perform such as miracles, but because of the logistics that would be involved. An earthquake violent enough to split a mountain in two would not likely leave any survivors in the vicinity to escape between the two mountains. Rather than dwelling securely (verse 1), Jerusalem would be wiped from the map. An interpretation that must pile miracles upon miracles that aren't explicitly claimed in the text in order to be plausible isn't a likely interpretation.
These images also appear symbolically elsewhere. Two mountains of bronze occur in Zechariah 6:1. Isaiah 2:2 and Micah 4:1 forecast Mt. Zion being lifted up above all other hills[20]. In contrast to the mountains, Zechariah 14:10 describes the land becoming a plain (i.e., like the Arabah). The image of a plain is used in Isaiah's Messianic prophecy in Isaiah 40:3-4. Zechariah himself already used it as a metaphore in Zechariah 4:7. Ezekiel also has a symbolic river flowing from the Temple in Jerusalem to the whole world (Ezekiel 47:1-12). See similar imagery in the poetry of Joel 3:18[21].
Phrases such as "all the nations" in verse 2 do not help in ruling out the period of the Maccabees, or the Romans (two common preterist interpretations) as such a phrase is often hyperbolic. Verse 8, I think does rule out a pre-Christian interpretation. The image of "living water" flowing out from Jerusalem into the seas is Messianic. In Hebrew idiom, the gentiles are across the seas -- Gentile nations are often called the isles of the Gentiles. The disciples had initially settled in Jerusalem after the crucifixion, but after the persecution that started with Stephen's execution, they scattered, taking the Gospel far afield of Jerusalem (Acts 8:1). The destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD completed this by removing all Christians from Jerusalem. See Jesus' warning to flee the city to the mountainsin the Olivet Discourse (Mark 13:14), and Eusebius account of them doing precisely that (Church History 3.5.2).
Verse 9 does not necessarily imply an eschatological time (like the millenium). Jesus' teaching of the Kingdom of God was that of it being an immanent reality, however, a future millenium does nicely account for the Edenic description of the following verses. It is interesting that the worship cites the Feast of Tabernacles, which comes at the end of the agricultural year in the autumn[22], and thus celebrates the harvest (in addition to its historic association the wilderness wonderings), and not the day of Atonement. After the sacrifice of the Messiah, the latter is no longer necessary, but giving thanks to God for his bounteous provision is still relevant. But even with a millennial interpretation, this passages says nothing about the bodily return of Christ being before or after it.
Verses 20-21 are not implying an eschatological temple. Quite the contrary, because all the vessels of Jerusalem are holy like the vessels of the temple, the idea of a temple is reduced in relevance. The reality of this in the church age is that the body of believers is the temple and we are all holy before God.
One is faced with a sort of chicken-and-egg problem in Bible study. To understand an individual verse one must understand its context. But to understand the context, one must understand the individual verses. To break the dilemma, two approaces may be taken. First a good commentary will help provide the context needed for individual verses, and explain how individual verses make up the context. Second, one must use an iterative approach. Dive in and read the whole book. Alternate between studying individual verses and the whole context. With each iteration, more of the individual verses will make sense once you understand more of the context, and more of the overall context will make sense as you understand the individual verses. It is easy to get caught up with exegeting individual verses and phrases, and forget to look at the larger structures and patterns of the book as a whole.
[1] Table adapted from Barker. "Zechariah". EBC. p. 598.
[2] e.g., Barker, p. 611; Craigie, p. 164; Hartman, loc. cit., etc.
[3] Barker, p. 615, and Clarke, loc. cit., mention this view. Hartman, loc. cit., accepts and develops it.
[4] NET cites these passages: Isaiah 41:8, 9; 41:10; 41:1-2, 21; Psalms 132:17; Jeremiah 23:5, 33:15.
[5] Henry, p. 1115-1116.
[6] John the Baptist Questions Jesus
[7] Although, as a post-millennialist, I am certainly sympathetic to anything that might indicate such an idealistic time, we don't do scripture justice by shoehorning every passage possible into our pet theologies.
[8] Antiquities of the Jews, Book XI, Chapter VIII.
[9] "Greece (Place)" in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
[10] 2 Sam 15-19, esp. 16:1 and 15:1; Word Biblical Commentary, loc. cit.
[11] Calvin, loc cit.
[12] See my discussion of apocalypse in my study on Daniel.
[13] Some translators think a portion of text has become displaced here, and this reference to seven eyes should be placed with the previous one. See NEB for example.
[14] NET notes, loc. cit.
[15] "Horn" in Ryken, Dictionary of Biblical Imagery.
[16] "These are the scattered Jews of eschatological times (as four winds of heaven makes clear) and not those of Zechariah’s time who have, for the most part, already returned by 520 b.c. This theme continues and is reinforced in vv. 10–13."
[17] Contrary to the claims of the NET note in 12:8.
[18] NRSV
[19] See my Ezekiel's Temple.
[20] Cited by Calvin, loc. cit.
[21] Cited by Keil-Delitzsh, loc. cit.
[22] "Harvest" in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
[23] "Stone" in Dictionary of Biblical Imagery.
Barker, Kenneth L. (1985). "Zechariah" in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. The Expositor's Bible Commentary. Zondervan.
Calvin, John. Calvin's Commentaries: Zechariah. Ages Software (1998).
Clarke, Adam. Clarke's Commentary: Zechariah. Ages Software (1999).
Craigie, P. C. (1984). Twelve Prophets: Volume 2. The Daily Study Bible Series. Westminster John Know Press. Logos (2001).
Hartman, F. H. (1994). Zechariah: Israel's Messenger of the Messiah's Triumph. Friends of Israel Gospel Ministry.
Henry, Matthew. (1712). Commentary on the Whole Bible, Volume 4: Isaiah to Malachi. Hendrickson (1991).
Keil, C. F., & Delitzsh (1866-91). F. Commentary on the Old Testament. Hendrickson (2002).
Ryken, L., et al (1998). Dictionary of Biblical Imagery. IVP.
Smith, R. L. (2002). Micah-Malachi. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 32. Word.
Whiston, William, trans. (1867). Josephus: Complete Works. Kregel (1981).